COMMENTARY ON Article 15

CONCERNING THE TAXATION OF INCOME FROM EMPLOYMENT [^64]

Paragraph 11. Paragraph 1 establishes the general rule as to the taxation of income from employment (other than pensions), namely, that such income is taxable in the State where the employment is actually exercised. The issue of whether or not services are provided in the exercise of an employment may sometimes give rise to difficulties which are discussed in paragraphs 8.1 ff. Employment is exercised in the place where the employee is physically present when performing the activities for which the employment income is paid. One consequence of this would be that a resident of a Contracting State who derived remuneration, in respect of an employment, from sources in the other State could not be taxed in that other State in respect of that remuneration merely because the results of this work were exploited in that other State.(Amended on 22 July 2010 see History)

2. The general rule is subject to exception only in the case of pensions (Article 18) and of remuneration and pensions in respect of government service (Article 19). Non-employment remuneration of members of boards of directors of companies is the subject of Article 16.(Amended on 23 October 1997 see History)

2.1 Member countries have generally understood the term “salaries, wages and other similar remuneration” to include benefits in kind received in respect of an employment (e.g.stock-options, the use of a residence or automobile, health or life insurance coverage and club memberships).(Amended on 15 July 2005 see History)

2.2 The condition provided by the Article for taxation by the State of source is that the salaries, wages or other similar remuneration be derived from the exercise of employment in that State. This applies regardless of when that income may be paid to, credited to or otherwise definitively acquired by the employee.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

2.3 In some cases, it may be difficult to determine which part of salaries, wages and other similar remuneration paid to an individual is derived from the exercise of employment in a given State. Paragraphs 12.6 to 12.13 below address this issue with respect to the granting of stock-options to an employee who exercises his employment in different States. The issue may also arise in the case of payments made after the termination of employment. Such payments may raise tax treaty issues in different cross-border situations, including cases where such payments are made to cross-border workers, to employees who have worked in a number of different countries during their career or to employees who have been sent to work abroad and are repatriated shortly before their employment is terminated. Regardless of the terminology used to describe these payments, it is essential to identify the real consideration for each such payment on the basis of the facts and circumstances of each case in order to determine whether the payment constitutes “salaries, wages or other similar remuneration” and the extent to which the payment, or part thereof, may be considered to derive from the exercise of employment in a given State. The following paragraphs discuss these questions with respect to different types of payments that are often made following the termination of employment.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.4 Any remuneration paid after the termination of employment for work done before the employment was terminated (e.g.a salary or bonus for the last period of work or commissions for sales made during that period) will be considered to be derived from the State in which the relevant employment activities were exercised.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.5 A payment made with respect to unused holidays / sick days that accrued during the last year of employment is part of the remuneration for the period of work that generated the holiday or sick leave entitlement. An employee may also be entitled, at the end of employment, to the payment for holidays and sick days related to a number of previous years that were unused during these years. Absent facts and circumstances showing otherwise, a payment received after termination of employment as compensation for holidays and sick days related to previous years that were unused during these years should be considered to have been a benefit for which the employee was entitled for the last 12 months of employment, allocated on a pro-rated basis to where the employment was exercised during that period. One situation where a different conclusion would be justified would be where it would be established, on the basis of the taxpayer’s employment records, that these holidays and sick days clearly relate to specific periods of past employment and that the payment constitutes remuneration for these periods of employment. States should take account, however, of the fact that the former employee may have been previously taxed on these holidays and sick days at the time of their accrual. Assume, for instance, that under a State’s domestic tax law, holidays and sick days granted with respect to periods of work performed on the territory of that State are treated as a benefit taxable during the fiscal year during which the relevant work was performed and are taxed accordingly. In such a case, the State of residence of the former employee at the time of the subsequent payment with respect to the holidays / sick days would need to provide relief of double taxation for such tax and any State in which the former employee may have worked during his last year of employment should similarly consider that any payment for previous years’ unused holiday / sick days that were already taxed on an accrual basis did not relate to employment activities exercised during the last year.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.6 In some cases, the employer is required (by law or by contract) to provide an employee with a period of notice before terminating employment. If the employee is told not to work during the notice period and is simply paid the remuneration for that period, such remuneration is clearly received by virtue of the employment and therefore constitutes remuneration “derived therefrom” for the purposes of paragraph 1. The remuneration received in such a case should be considered to be derived from the State where it is reasonable to assume that the employee would have worked during the period of notice. The determination of where it is reasonable to assume that the employee would have worked during the period of notice should be based on all facts and circumstances. In most cases it will be the last location where the employee worked for a substantial period of time before the employment was terminated; also, it would clearly be inappropriate to take account of a prospective employment period in a State where the employee might have been expected to work but did not, in fact, perform his employment for a substantial period of time.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.7 A different situation is that of a severance payment (also referred to as a “redundancy payment”) which an employer is required (by law or by contract) to make to an employee whose employment has been terminated. Such a payment is often, but not always, calculated by reference to the period of past employment with the employer. Absent facts and circumstances indicating otherwise, such a severance payment should be considered to be remuneration covered by the Article for the last 12 months of employment, allocated on a pro-rated basis to where the employment was exercised during that period; as such it constitutes remuneration derived from that employment for the purposes of the last sentence of paragraph 1.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.8 An individual whose employment is terminated may have legal grounds to claim that the employment was terminated in violation of the contract of employment, the law or a collective agreement; there may also be other legal grounds for claiming damages depending on the circumstances of the termination. This individual may receive a judicial award or settlement as damages for breach of the relevant contractual or legal obligations. The tax treaty treatment will depend on what the damage award seeks to compensate. For instance, damages granted because an insufficient period of notice was given or because a severance payment required by law or contract was not made should be treated like the remuneration that these damages replace. Punitive damages or damages awarded on grounds such as discriminatory treatment or injury to one’s reputation should, however, be treated differently; these payments would typically fall under Article 21.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.9 Under the provisions of an employment contract or of a settlement following the termination of an employment, a previous employee may receive a payment in consideration for an obligation not to work for a competitor of his ex-employer. This obligation is almost always time-limited and often geographically-limited. Whilst such a payment is directly related to the employment and is therefore “remuneration ... derived in respect of an employment”, it would not, in most circumstances, constitute remuneration derived from employment activities performed before the termination of the employment. For that reason, it will usually be taxable only in the State where the recipient resides at the time the payment is received. Where, however, such a payment made after the termination of employment is in substance remuneration for activities performed during the employment (which might be the case where, for example, the obligation not to compete has little or no value for the ex-employer), the payment should be treated in the same way as remuneration received for the work performed during the relevant period of employment. Also, in some States, part of an employee’s monthly salary during employment constitutes consideration for an obligation not to work for a competitor during a certain period of time after termination of the employment so that no separate payment for non-competition is made after the termination of the employment; in such a case, the guidance in the first part of this paragraph is not applicable and the part of the remuneration received during the employment that is attributable to that obligation should be treated in the same way as the rest of that remuneration.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.10 As explained in paragraphs 4 to 6 of the Commentary on Article 18, various payments may be made after the termination of an employment with respect to pension contributions or pension entitlements of the former employee. According to paragraph 6 of that Commentary, “[w]hether a particular payment is to be considered as other remuneration similar to a pension or as final remuneration for work performed falling under Article 15 is a question of fact”. The paragraph gives the example of a “[r]eimbursement of pension contributions (e.g.after temporary employment)” as a payment that would not be covered by Article 18. To the extent that such a reimbursement of contributions would constitute additional remuneration for previous employment that results from the termination of the employment, it would covered by Article 15 and should be viewed as deriving from the State where the employment was exercised when the employment was terminated.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.11 Payments may be made after the termination of employment pursuant to various deferred remuneration arrangements. Such a payment should be treated as remuneration covered by Article 15 and, to the extent that it can be associated to a specific period of past employment in a given State, it should be considered to be derived from the employment activities exercised in that State. Since many States would not allow the deferral of tax on employment remuneration even if the payment of that remuneration is deferred, it will be important for States that will tax deferred remuneration payments received after the termination of employment to ensure that double taxation is relieved.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.12 Various payments may be made after the termination of an employment on account of incentive compensation in general and stock-options in particular. Whilst the treaty treatment of each such payment will depend on its own characteristics, the principles put forward in paragraphs 12 to 12.15, which deal specifically with stock-options, will assist in dealing with other forms of incentive compensation.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.13 An employee may be entitled to medical or life insurance coverage for a certain period after termination of his/her employment. He/she may also be entitled to other benefits, such as the services of an employment consultant or agency. Absent facts and circumstances indicating otherwise, such benefits should be considered to be remuneration covered by the Article which is derived from the State where the employment was exercised when the employment was terminated (and when, therefore, the obligation to pay these benefits arose).(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.14 Another type of payment that could be made on or after termination of an employment is a compensation payment for loss of future earnings following injury or disability suffered during the course of employment. The tax treaty treatment of such a payment would depend on the legal context in which it was made. For instance, payments under a social security system such as a worker’s compensation fund could fall under Article 18, 19 or 21 (see paragraph 24 of the Commentary on Article 18). A payment that would constitute a pension payment would be covered by Article 18. A payment made because the employee has legal grounds for claiming damages from his employer with respect to a work-related sickness or injury would typically fall under Article 21. A payment made by the employer pursuant to the terms of the employment contract even though the sickness or injury is not work-related or the employer is not responsible for that sickness or injury should be dealt with in the same way as a severance payment: absent facts and circumstances indicating otherwise, such a payment should be considered to be remuneration covered by the Article for the last 12 months of employment, allocated on a pro-rated basis to where the employment was exercised during that period. A short-term disability payment made in the course of employment, however, should be treated in the same way as the payment of sick days during the course of employment; such a payment would be covered by Article 15 (Article 17 in the case of entertainers and sportspersons) and taxable in the State in which the employee normally exercised the employment before becoming sick or being injured.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.15 After termination of employment, a salesperson may receive a payment in relation to the loss of future commissions. The tax treaty treatment of such a payment will depend on the legal context in which the payment is made. Depending on the circumstances, this payment could constitute deferred remuneration to which the salesperson was entitled in relation to previous sales or could be made pursuant to a provision of the employment contract according to which the salesperson has a right to commissions on any future sales to a client that the salesperson brought to the employer; in both cases, the payment should be dealt with as remuneration for the employment services that gave rise to the entitlement to the commissions. A payment that would constitute a compensation for future commissions that the salesperson would likely have earned if she had continued to work for the same employer may also constitute a compensation for unlawful dismissal or a form of severance payment; where that is the case, the payment should be dealt with accordingly.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

2.16 As part of a transitional arrangement leading to the termination of employment, an employee may receive a full or reduced salary for a period during which that employee will not work. Where the salary is paid by the employer for a period during which the employee is not required to work even though the employment has not been terminated, the salary is still received by virtue of the employment and therefore constitutes remuneration “derived therefrom” for the purposes of paragraph 1. The remuneration received in such a case should be considered to be derived from the State where it is reasonable to assume that the employee would have worked during that period, which will most often be the State where the employment activities were performed before the cessation of work.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

Paragraph 23. Paragraph 2contains a general exception to the rule in paragraph 1. This exception covers all individuals rendering services in the course of an employment (sales representatives, construction workers, engineers, etc.), to the extent that their remuneration does not fall under the provisions of other Articles, such as those applying to government services or entertainers and sportsperons.(Amended on 15 July 2014 see History)

4. The three conditions prescribed in this paragraph must be satisfied for the remuneration to qualify for the exemption. The first condition is that the exemption is limited to the 183 day period. It is further stipulated that this time period may not be exceeded “in any twelve month period commencing or ending in the fiscal year concerned”. This contrasts with the 1963 Draft Convention and the 1977 Model Convention which provided that the 183 day period should not be exceeded “in the fiscal year concerned”, a formulation that created difficulties where the fiscal years of the Contracting States did not coincide and which opened up opportunities in the sense that operations were sometimes organised in such a way that, for example, workers stayed in the State concerned for the last 5 ½ months of one year and the first 5 ½ months of the following year. The present wording of subparagraph 2 a> ) does away with such opportunities for tax avoidance. In applying that wording, all possible periods of twelve consecutive months must be considered, even periods which overlap others to a certain extent. For instance, if an employee is present in a State during 150 days between 1 April 01 and 31 March 02 but is present there during 210 days between 1 August 01 and 31 July 02, the employee will have been present for a period exceeding 183 days during the second 12 month period identified above even though he did not meet the minimum presence test during the first period considered and that first period partly overlaps the second.(Amended on 15 July 2005 see History)

4.1 The reference to the “fiscal year concerned” must be interpreted as a reference to a fiscal year of the Contracting State in which a resident of the other Contracting State has exercised his employment and during which the relevant employment services have been rendered. Assume, for example, that the fiscal year of State S runs from 1 January to 31 December and that a resident of State R is present and performs employment services in State S between 1 August 00 and 28 February 01. For the purposes of subparagraph 2 a), any twelve month period that begins between 1 January and 31 December 00 or ends between 1 January and 31 December 01 and that includes any part of the period of employment services would be relevant. For instance, the twelve month period of 1 August 00 to 31 July 01, which begins in the fiscal year 00 and during which the person was present in State S for more than 183 days, would include the employment services rendered in that State between 1 August and 31 December 00; similarly, the twelve month period of 1 March 00 to 28 February 01, which ends in the fiscal year 01 and during which the person was present in State S for more than 183 days, would include the employment services rendered in that State between 1 January and 28 February 01. The taxation of the remuneration for the relevant services need not take place in the fiscal year concerned: as explained in paragraphs 2.2 above and 12.1 below, the Article allows a State to tax the remuneration derived from employment exercised in that State in a particular year even if the remuneration for these employment services is acquired, or the tax is levied, in a different year.(Added on 15 July 2014 see History)

5. Although various formulas have been used by member countries to calculate the 183 day period, there is only one way which is consistent with the wording of this paragraph: the “days of physical presence” method. The application of this method is straightforward as the individual is either present in a country or he is not. The presence could also relatively easily be documented by the taxpayer when evidence is required by the tax authorities. Under this method the following days are included in the calculation: part of a day, day of arrival, day of departure and all other days spent inside the State of activity such as Saturdays and Sundays, national holidays, holidays before, during and after the activity, short breaks (training, strikes, lock-out, delays in supplies), days of sickness (unless they prevent the individual from leaving and he would have otherwise qualified for the exemption) and death or sickness in the family. However, days spent in the State of activity in transit in the course of a trip between two points outside the State of activity should be excluded from the computation. It follows from these principles that any entire day spent outside the State of activity, whether for holidays, business trips, or any other reason, should not be taken into account. A day during any part of which, however brief, the taxpayer is present in a State counts as a day of presence in that State for purposes of computing the 183 day period.(Amended on 21 September 1995 see History)

5.1 Days during which the taxpayer is a resident of the source State should not, however, be taken into account in the calculation. Subparagraph a) has to be read in the context of the first part of paragraph 2, which refers to “remuneration derived by a resident of a Contracting State in respect of an employment exercised in the other Contracting State”, which does not apply to a person who resides and works in the same State. The words “the recipient is present”, found in subparagraph a), refer to the recipient of such remuneration and, during a period of residence in the source State, a person cannot be said to be the recipient of remuneration derived by a resident of a Contracting State in respect of an employment exercised in the other Contracting State. The following examples illustrate this conclusion:

• Example 1: From January 01 to December 01, X lives in, and is a resident of, State S. On 1 January 02, X is hired by an employer who is a resident of State R and moves to State R where he becomes a resident. X is subsequently sent to State S by his employer from 15 to 31 March 02. In that case, X is present in State S for 292 days between 1 April 01 and 31 March 02 but since he is a resident of State S between 1 April 01 and 31 December 01, this first period is not taken into account for purposes of the calculation of the periods referred to in subparagraph a).

• Example 2: From 15 to 31 October 01, Y, a resident of State R, is present in State S to prepare the expansion in that country of the business of ACO, also a resident of State R. On 1 May 02, Y moves to State S where she becomes a resident and works as the manager of a newly created subsidiary of ACO resident of State S. In that case, Y is present in State S for 184 days between 15 October 01 and 14 October 02 but since she is a resident of State S between 1 May and 14 October 02, this last period is not taken into account for purposes of the calculation of the periods referred to in subparagraph a).

(Added on 17 July 2008 see History)

6. The second condition is that the employer paying the remuneration must not be a resident of the State in which the employment is exercised. Some member countries may, however, consider that it is inappropriate to extend the exception of paragraph 2 to cases where the employer is not a resident of the State of residence of the employee, as there might then be administrative difficulties in determining the employment income of the employee or in enforcing withholding obligations on the employer. Contracting States that share this view are free to adopt bilaterally the following alternative wording of subparagraph 2 b):the remuneration is paid by, or on behalf of, an employer who is a resident of the first-mentioned State, and

(Renumbered on 29 April 2000 see History)

6.1 The application of the second condition in the case of fiscally transparent partnerships presents difficulties since such partnerships cannot qualify as a resident of a Contracting State under Article 4 (see paragraph 8.2 of the Commentary on Article 4). While it is clear that such a partnership could qualify as an “employer” (especially under the domestic law definitions of the term in some countries,e.g.where an employer is defined as a person liable for a wage tax), the application of the condition at the level of the partnership regardless of the situation of the partners would therefore render the condition totally meaningless.(Added on 29 April 2000 see History)

6.2 The object and purpose of subparagraphs b) and c) of paragraph 2 are to avoid the source taxation of short-term employments to the extent that the employment income is not allowed as a deductible expense in the State of source because the employer is not taxable in that State as he neither is a resident nor has a permanent establishment therein. These subparagraphs can also be justified by the fact that imposing source deduction requirements with respect to short-term employments in a given State may be considered to constitute an excessive administrative burden where the employer neither resides nor has a permanent establishment in that State. In order to achieve a meaningful interpretation of subparagraph b) that would accord with its context and its object, it should therefore be considered that, in the case of fiscally transparent partnerships, that subparagraph applies at the level of the partners. Thus, the concepts of “employer” and “resident”, as found in subparagraph b), are applied at the level of the partners rather than at the level of a fiscally transparent partnership. This approach is consistent with that under which other provisions of tax conventions must be applied at the partners’ rather than at the partnership’s level. While this interpretation could create difficulties where the partners reside in different States, such difficulties could be addressed through the mutual agreement procedure by determining, for example, the State in which the partners who own the majority of the interests in the partnership reside (i.e.the State in which the greatest part of the deduction will be claimed).(Added on 29 April 2000 see History)

7. Under the third condition, if the employer has a permanent establishment in the State in which the employment is exercised, the exemption is given on condition that the remuneration is not borne by that permanent establishment. The phrase “borne by” must be interpreted in the light of the underlying purpose of subparagraph c) of the Article, which is to ensure that the exception provided for in paragraph 2 does not apply to remuneration that could give rise to a deduction, having regard to the principles of Article 7 and the nature of the remuneration, in computing the profits of a permanent establishment situated in the State in which the employment is exercised.(Amended on 22 July 2010 see History)

7.1 The fact that the employer has, or has not, actually claimed a deduction for the remuneration in computing the profits attributable to the permanent establishment is not necessarily conclusive since the proper test is whether any deduction otherwise available with respect to that remuneration should be taken into account in determining the profits attributable to the permanent establishment. That test would be met, for instance, even if no amount were actually deducted as a result of the permanent establishment being exempt from tax in the source country or of the employer simply deciding not to claim a deduction to which he was entitled. The test would also be met where the remuneration is not deductible merely because of its nature (e.g.where the State takes the view that the issuing of shares pursuant to an employee stock-option does not give rise to a deduction) rather than because it should not be allocated to the permanent establishment.(Renumbered and amended on 22 July 2010 see History)

7.2 For the purpose of determining the profits attributable to a permanent establishment pursuant to paragraph 2 of Article 7, the remuneration paid to an employee of an enterprise of a Contracting State for employment services rendered in the other State for the benefit of a permanent establishment of the enterprise situated in that other State may, given the circumstances, either give rise to a direct deduction or give rise to the deduction of a notional charge,e.g.for services rendered to the permanent establishment by another part of the enterprise. In the latter case, since the notional charge required by the legal fiction of the separate and independent enterprise that is applicable under paragraph 2 of Article 7 is merely a mechanism provided for by that paragraph for the sole purpose of determining the profits attributable to the permanent establishment, this fiction does not affect the determination of whether or not the remuneration is borne by the permanent establishment.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8. There is a direct relationship between the principles underlying the exception of paragraph 2 and Article 7. Article 7 is based on the principle that an enterprise of a Contracting State should not be subjected to tax in the other State unless its business presence in that other State has reached a level sufficient to constitute a permanent establishment. The exception of paragraph 2 of Article 15 extends that principle to the taxation of the employees of such an enterprise where the activities of these employees are carried on in the other State for a relatively short period. Subparagraphs b) and c) make it clear that the exception is not intended to apply where the employment services are rendered to an enterprise the profits of which are subjected to tax in a State either because it is carried on by a resident of that State or because it has a permanent establishment therein to which the services are attributable.(Amended on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.1 It may be difficult, in certain cases, to determine whether the services rendered in a State by an individual resident of another State, and provided to an enterprise of the first State (or that has a permanent establishment in that State), constitute employment services, to which Article 15 applies, or services rendered by a separate enterprise, to which Article 7 applies or, more generally, whether the exception applies. While the Commentary previously dealt with cases where arrangements were structured for the main purpose of obtaining the benefits of the exception of paragraph 2 of Article 15, it was found that similar issues could arise in many other cases that did not involve tax-motivated transactions and the Commentary was amended to provide a more comprehensive discussion of these questions.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.2 In some States, a formal contractual relationship would not be questioned for tax purposes unless there were some evidence of manipulation and these States, as a matter of domestic law, would consider that employment services are only rendered where there is a formal employment relationship.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.3 If States where this is the case are concerned that such approach could result in granting the benefits of the exception provided for in paragraph 2 in unintended situations (e.g.in so-called “hiring-out of labour” cases), they are free to adopt bilaterally a provision drafted along the following lines:Paragraph 2 of this Article shall not apply to remuneration derived by a resident of a Contracting State in respect of an employment exercised in the other Contracting State and paid by, or on behalf of, an employer who is not a resident of that other State if:the recipient renders services in the course of that employment to a person other than the employer and that person, directly or indirectly, supervises, directs or controls the manner in which those services are performed; and

those services constitute an integral part of the business activities carried on by that person.

(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.4 In many States, however, various legislative or jurisprudential rules and criteria (e.g.substance over form rules) have been developed for the purpose of distinguishing cases where services rendered by an individual to an enterprise should be considered to be rendered in an employment relationship (contract of service) from cases where such services should be considered to be rendered under a contract for the provision of services between two separate enterprises (contract for services). That distinction keeps its importance when applying the provisions of Article 15, in particular those of subparagraphs 2 b) and c). Subject to the limit described in paragraph 8.11 and unless the context of a particular convention requires otherwise, it is a matter of domestic law of the State of source to determine whether services rendered by an individual in that State are provided in an employment relationship and that determination will govern how that State applies the Convention.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.5 In some cases, services rendered by an individual to an enterprise may be considered to be employment services for purposes of domestic tax law even though these services are provided under a formal contract for services between, on the one hand, the enterprise that acquires the services, and, on the other hand, either the individual himself or another enterprise by which the individual is formally employed or with which the individual has concluded another formal contract for services.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.6 In such cases, the relevant domestic law may ignore the way in which the services are characterised in the formal contracts. It may prefer to focus primarily on the nature of the services rendered by the individual and their integration into the business carried on by the enterprise that acquires the services to conclude that there is an employment relationship between the individual and that enterprise.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.7 Since the concept of employment to which Article 15 refers is to be determined according to the domestic law of the State that applies the Convention (subject to the limit described in paragraph 8.11 and unless the context of a particular convention requires otherwise), it follows that a State which considers such services to be employment services will apply Article 15accordingly. It will, therefore, logically conclude that the enterprise to which the services are rendered is in an employment relationship with the individual so as to constitute his employer for purposes of subparagraphs 2 b) and c). That conclusion is consistent with the object and purpose of paragraph 2 of Article 15 since, in that case, the employment services may be said to be rendered to a resident of the State where the services are performed.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.8 As mentioned in paragraph 8.2, even where the domestic law of the State that applies the Convention does not offer the possibility of questioning a formal contractual relationship and therefore does not allow the State to consider that services rendered to a local enterprise by an individual who is formally employed by a non-resident are rendered in an employment relationship (contract of service) with that local enterprise, it is possible for that State to deny the application of the exception of paragraph 2 in abusive cases.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.9 The various approaches that are available to States that want to deal with such abusive cases are discussed in the section “Improper use of the Convention” in the Commentary on Article 1. As explained in paragraph 9.1 of that Commentary, it is agreed that States do not have to grant the benefits of a tax convention where arrangements that constitute an abuse of the Convention have been entered into. As noted in paragraph 9.5 of that Commentary, however, it should not be lightly assumed that this is the case (see also paragraph 22.2 of that Commentary).(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.10 The approach described in the previous paragraphs therefore allows the State in which the activities are exercised to reject the application of paragraph 2 in abusive cases and in cases where, under that State’s domestic law concept of employment, services rendered to a local enterprise by an individual who is formally employed by a non-resident are rendered in an employment relationship (contract of service) with that local enterprise. This approach ensures that relief of double taxation will be provided in the State of residence of the individual even if that State does not, under its own domestic law, consider that there is an employment relationship between the individual and the enterprise to which the services are provided. Indeed, as long as the State of residence acknowledges that the concept of employment in the domestic tax law of the State of source or the existence of arrangements that constitute an abuse of the Convention allows that State to tax the employment income of an individual in accordance with the Convention, it must grant relief for double taxation pursuant to the obligations incorporated in Articles 23 A and 23 B (see paragraphs 32.1 to 32.7 of the Commentary on these Articles). The mutual agreement procedure provided by paragraph 1 of Article 25 will be available to address cases where the State of residence does not agree that the other State has correctly applied the approach described above and, therefore, does not consider that the other State has taxed the relevant income in accordance with the Convention.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.11 The conclusion that, under domestic law, a formal contractual relationship should be disregarded must, however, be arrived at on the basis of objective criteria. For instance, a State could not argue that services are deemed, under its domestic law, to constitute employment services where, under the relevant facts and circumstances, it clearly appears that these services are rendered under a contract for the provision of services concluded between two separate enterprises. The relief provided under paragraph 2 of Article 15 would be rendered meaningless if States were allowed to deem services to constitute employment services in cases where there is clearly no employment relationship or to deny the quality of employer to an enterprise carried on by a non-resident where it is clear that that enterprise provides services, through its own personnel, to an enterprise carried on by a resident. Conversely, where services rendered by an individual may properly be regarded by a State as rendered in an employment relationship rather than as under a contract for services concluded between two enterprises, that State should logically also consider that the individual is not carrying on the business of the enterprise that constitutes that individual’s formal employer; this could be relevant, for example, for purposes of determining whether that enterprise has a permanent establishment at the place where the individual performs his activities.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.12 It will not always be clear, however, whether services rendered by an individual may properly be regarded by a State as rendered in an employment relationship rather than as under a contract for services concluded between two enterprises. Any disagreement between States as to whether this is the case should be solved having regard to the following principles and examples (using, where appropriate, the mutual agreement procedure).(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.13 The nature of the services rendered by the individual will be an important factor since it is logical to assume that an employee provides services which are an integral part of the business activities carried on by his employer. It will therefore be important to determine whether the services rendered by the individual constitute an integral part of the business of the enterprise to which these services are provided. For that purpose, a key consideration will be which enterprise bears the responsibility or risk for the results produced by the individual’s work. Clearly, however, this analysis will only be relevant if the services of an individual are rendered directly to an enterprise. Where, for example, an individual provides services to a contract manufacturer or to an enterprise to which business is outsourced, the services of that individual are not rendered to enterprises that will obtain the products or services in question.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.14 Where a comparison of the nature of the services rendered by the individual with the business activities carried on by his formal employer and by the enterprise to which the services are provided points to an employment relationship that is different from the formal contractual relationship, the following additional factors may be relevant to determine whether this is really the case:

• who has the authority to instruct the individual regarding the manner in which the work has to be performed;

• who controls and has responsibility for the place at which the work is performed;

• the remuneration of the individual is directly charged by the formal employer to the enterprise to which the services are provided (see paragraph 8.15 below);

• who puts the tools and materials necessary for the work at the individual’s disposal;

• who determines the number and qualifications of the individuals performing the work;

• who has the right to select the individual who will perform the work and to terminate the contractual arrangements entered into with that individual for that purpose;

• who has the right to impose disciplinary sanctions related to the work of that individual;

• who determines the holidays and work schedule of that individual.

(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.15 Where an individual who is formally an employee of one enterprise provides services to another enterprise, the financial arrangements made between the two enterprises will clearly be relevant, although not necessarily conclusive, for the purposes of determining whether the remuneration of the individual is directly charged by the formal employer to the enterprise to which the services are provided. For instance, if the fees charged by the enterprise that formally employs the individual represent the remuneration, employment benefits and other employment costs of that individual for the services that he provided to the other enterprise, with no profit element or with a profit element that is computed as a percentage of that remuneration, benefits and other employment costs, this would be indicative that the remuneration of the individual is directly charged by the formal employer to the enterprise to which the services are provided. That should not be considered to be the case, however, if the fee charged for the services bears no relationship to the remuneration of the individual or if that remuneration is only one of many factors taken into account in the fee charged for what is really a contract for services (e.g.where a consulting firm charges a client on the basis of an hourly fee for the time spent by one of its employees to perform a particular contract and that fee takes account of the various costs of the enterprise), provided that this is in conformity with the arm’s length principle if the two enterprises are associated. It is important to note, however, that the question of whether the remuneration of the individual is directly charged by the formal employer to the enterprise to which the services are provided is only one of the subsidiary factors that are relevant in determining whether services rendered by that individual may properly be regarded by a State as rendered in an employment relationship rather than as under a contract for services concluded between two enterprises.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.16 Example 1: Aco, a company resident of State A, concludes a contract with Bco, a company resident of State B, for the provision of training services. Aco is specialised in training people in the use of various computer software and Bco wishes to train its personnel to use recently acquired software. X, an employee of Aco who is a resident of State A, is sent to Bco’s offices in State B to provide training courses as part of the contract.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.17 In that case, State B could not argue that X is in an employment relationship with Bco or that Aco is not the employer of X for purposes of the convention between States A and B. X is formally an employee of Aco whose own services, when viewed in light of the factors in paragraphs 8.13 and 8.14, form an integral part of the business activities of Aco. The services that he renders to Bco are rendered on behalf of Aco under the contract concluded between the two enterprises. Thus, provided that X is not present in State B for more than 183 days during any relevant twelve month period and that Aco does not have in State B a permanent establishment which bears the cost of X’s remuneration, the exception of paragraph 2 of Article 15 will apply to X’s remuneration.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.18 Example 2: Cco, a company resident of State C, is the parent company of a group of companies that includes Dco, a company resident of State D. Cco has developed a new worldwide marketing strategy for the products of the group. In order to ensure that the strategy is well understood and followed by Dco, which sells the group’s products, Cco sends X, one of its employees who has worked on the development of the strategy, to work in Dco’s headquarters for four months in order to advise Dco with respect to its marketing and to ensure that Dco’s communications department understands and complies with the worldwide marketing strategy.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.19 In that case, Cco’s business includes the management of the worldwide marketing activities of the group and X’s own services are an integral part of that business activity. While it could be argued that an employee could have been easily hired by Dco to perform the function of advising the company with respect to its marketing, it is clear that such function is frequently performed by a consultant, especially where specialised knowledge is required for a relatively short period of time. Also, the function of monitoring the compliance with the group’s worldwide marketing strategy belongs to the business of Cco rather than to that of Dco. The exception of paragraph 2 of Article 15 should therefore apply provided that the other conditions for that exception are satisfied.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.20 Example 3: A multinational owns and operates hotels worldwide through a number of subsidiaries. Eco, one of these subsidiaries, is a resident of State E where it owns and operates a hotel. X is an employee of Eco who works in this hotel. Fco, another subsidiary of the group, owns and operates a hotel in State F where there is a shortage of employees with foreign language skills. For that reason, X is sent to work for five months at the reception desk of Fco’s hotel. Fco pays the travel expenses of X, who remains formally employed and paid by Eco, and pays Eco a management fee based on X’s remuneration, social contributions and other employment benefits for the relevant period.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.21 In that case, working at the reception desk of the hotel in State F, when examined in light of the factors in paragraphs 8.13 and 8.14, may be viewed as forming an integral part of Fco’s business of operating that hotel rather than of Eco’s business. Under the approach described above, if, under the domestic law of State F, the services of X are considered to have been rendered to Fco in an employment relationship, State F could then logically consider that Fco is the employer of X and the exception of paragraph 2 of Article 15 would not apply.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.22 Example 4: Gco is a company resident of State G. It carries on the business of filling temporary business needs for highly specialised personnel. Hco is a company resident of State H which provides engineering services on building sites. In order to complete one of its contracts in State H, Hco needs an engineer for a period of five months. It contacts Gco for that purpose. Gco recruits X, an engineer resident of State X, and hires him under a five month employment contract. Under a separate contract between Gco and Hco, Gco agrees to provide the services of X to Hco during that period. Under these contracts, Gco will pay X’s remuneration, social contributions, travel expenses and other employment benefits and charges.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.23 In that case, X provides engineering services while Gco is in the business of filling short-term business needs. By their nature the services rendered by X are not an integral part of the business activities of his formal employer. These services are, however, an integral part of the business activities of Hco, an engineering firm. In light of the factors in paragraphs 8.13and 8.14, State H could therefore consider that, under the approach described above, the exception of paragraph 2 of Article 15 would not apply with respect to the remuneration for the services of the engineer that will be rendered in that State.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.24 Example 5: Ico is a company resident of State I specialised in providing engineering services. Ico employs a number of engineers on a full time basis. Jco, a smaller engineering firm resident of State J, needs the temporary services of an engineer to complete a contract on a construction site in State J. Ico agrees with Jco that one of Ico’s engineers, who is a resident of State I momentarily not assigned to any contract concluded by Ico, will work for four months on Jco’s contract under the direct supervision and control of one of Jco’s senior engineers. Jco will pay Ico an amount equal to the remuneration, social contributions, travel expenses and other employment benefits of that engineer for the relevant period, together with a 5 per cent commission. Jco also agrees to indemnify Ico for any eventual claims related to the engineer’s work during that period of time.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.25 In that case, even if Ico is in the business of providing engineering services, it is clear that the work performed by the engineer on the construction site in State J is performed on behalf of Jco rather than Ico. The direct supervision and control exercised by Jco over the work of the engineer, the fact that Jco takes over the responsibility for that work and that it bears the cost of the remuneration of the engineer for the relevant period are factors that could support the conclusion that the engineer is in an employment relationship with Jco. Under the approach described above, State J could therefore consider that the exception of paragraph 2of Article 15 would not apply with respect to the remuneration for the services of the engineer that will be rendered in that State.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.26 Example 6: Kco, a company resident of State K, and Lco, a company resident of State L, are part of the same multinational group of companies. A large part of the activities of that group are structured along function lines, which requires employees of different companies of the group to work together under the supervision of managers who are located in different States and employed by other companies of the group. X is a resident of State K employed by Kco; she is a senior manager in charge of supervising human resources functions within the multinational group. Since X is employed by Kco, Kco acts as a cost centre for the human resource costs of the group; periodically, these costs are charged out to each of the companies of the group on the basis of a formula that takes account of various factors such as the number of employees of each company. X is required to travel frequently to other States where other companies of the group have their offices. During the last year, X spent three months in State L in order to deal with human resources issues at Lco.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.27 In that case, the work performed by X is part of the activities that Kco performs for its multinational group. These activities, like other activities such as corporate communication, strategy, finance and tax, treasury, information management and legal support, are often centralised within a large group of companies. The work that X performs is thus an integral part of the business of Kco. The exception of paragraph 2 of Article 15 should therefore apply to the remuneration derived by X for her work in State L provided that the other conditions for that exception are satisfied.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

8.28 Where, in accordance with the above principles and examples, a State properly considers that the services rendered on its territory by an individual have been rendered in an employment relationship rather than under a contract for services concluded between two enterprises, there will be a risk that the enterprises would be required to withhold tax at source in two jurisdictions on the remuneration of that individual even though double taxation should ultimately be avoided (see paragraph 8.10 above). This compliance difficulty may be partly reduced by tax administrations making sure that their domestic rules and practices applicable to employment are clear and well understood by employers and are easily accessible. Also, the problem can be alleviated if the State of residence allows enterprises to quickly adjust the amount of tax to be withheld to take account of any relief for double taxation that will likely be available to the employee.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

Paragarph 39. Paragraph 3applies to the remuneration of crews of ships or aircraft operated in international traffic, or of boats engaged in inland waterways transport, a rule which follows up to a certain extent the rule applied to the income from shipping, inland waterways transport and air transport, that is, to tax them in the Contracting State in which the place of effective management of the enterprise concerned is situated. In the Commentary on Article 8, it is indicated that Contracting States may agree to confer the right to tax such income on the State of the enterprise operating the ships, boats or aircraft. The reasons for introducing that possibility in the case of income from shipping, inland waterways and air transport operations are valid also in respect of remuneration of the crew. Accordingly Contracting States are left free to agree on a provision which gives the right to tax such remuneration to the State of the enterprise. Such a provision, as well as that of paragraph 3 of Article 15, assumes that the domestic laws of the State on which the right to tax is conferred allows it to tax the remuneration of a person in the service of the enterprise concerned, irrespective of his residence. It is understood that paragraph 3 of Article 8 is applicable if the place of effective management of a shipping enterprise or of an inland waterways transport enterprise is aboard a ship or a boat. According to the domestic laws of some member countries, tax is levied on remuneration received by non-resident members of the crew in respect of employment aboard ships only if the ship has the nationality of such a State. For that reason conventions concluded between these States provide that the right to tax such remuneration is given to the State of the nationality of the ship. On the other hand many States cannot make use of such a taxation right and the provision could in such cases lead to non-taxation. However, States having that taxation principle in their domestic laws may agree bilaterally to confer the right to tax remuneration in respect of employment aboard ships on the State of the nationality of the ship.(Renumbered on 23 July 1992 see History)

10. It should be noted that no special rules regarding the taxation of income of frontier workers or of employees working on trucks and trains travelling between States are included as it would be more suitable for the problems created by local conditions to be solved directly between the States concerned.(Amended on 15 July 2005 see History)

11. No special provision has been made regarding remuneration derived by visiting professors or students employed with a view to their acquiring practical experience. Many conventions contain rules of some kind or other concerning such cases, the main purpose of which is to facilitate cultural relations by providing for a limited tax exemption. Sometimes, tax exemption is already provided under domestic taxation laws. The absence of specific rules should not be interpreted as constituting an obstacle to the inclusion of such rules in bilateral conventions whenever this is felt desirable.(Renumbered on 23 July 1992 see History)

The treatment of employee stock-options12. The different country rules for taxing employee stock-options create particular problems which are discussed below. While many of these problems arise with respect to other forms of employee remuneration, particularly those that are based on the value of shares of the employer or a related company, they are particularly acute in the case of stock-options. This is largely due to the fact that stock-options are often taxed at a time (e.g.when the option is exercised or the shares sold) that is different from the time when the employment services that are remunerated through these options are rendered.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.1 As noted in paragraph 2.2, the Article allows the State of source to tax the part of the stock-option benefit that constitutes remuneration derived from employment exercised in that State even if the tax is levied at a later time when the employee is no longer employed in that State.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.2 While the Article applies to the employment benefit derived from a stock-option granted to an employee regardless of when that benefit is taxed, there is a need to distinguish that employment benefit from the capital gain that may be derived from the alienation of shares acquired upon the exercise of the option. This Article, and not Article 13, will apply to any benefit derived from the option itself until it has been exercised, sold or otherwise alienated (e.g.upon cancellation or acquisition by the employer or issuer). Once the option is exercised or alienated, however, the employment benefit has been realised and any subsequent gain on the acquired shares (i.e.the value of the shares that accrues after exercise) will be derived by the employee in his capacity of investor-shareholder and will be covered by Article 13. Indeed, it is at the time of exercise that the option, which is what the employee obtained from his employment, disappears and the recipient obtains the status of shareholder (and usually invests money in order to do so). Where, however, the option that has been exercised entitles the employee to acquire shares that will not irrevocably vest until the end of a period of required employment, it will be appropriate to apply this Article to the increase in value, if any, until the end of the required period of employment that is subsequent to the exercise of the option.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.3 The fact that the Article does not apply to a benefit derived after the exercise or alienation of the option does not imply in any way that taxation of the employment income under domestic law must occur at the time of that exercise or alienation. As already noted, the Article does not impose any restriction as to when the relevant income may be taxed by the State of source. Thus, the State of source could tax the relevant income at the time the option is granted, at the time the option is exercised (or alienated), at the time the share is sold or at any other time. The State of source, however, may only tax the benefits attributable to the option itself and not what is attributable to the subsequent holding of shares acquired upon the exercise of that option (except in the circumstances described in the last sentence of the preceding paragraph).(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.4 Since paragraph 1 must be interpreted to apply to any benefit derived from the option until it has been exercised, sold or otherwise alienated, it does not matter how such benefit, or any part thereof, is characterised for domestic tax purposes. As a result, whilst the Article will be interpreted to allow the State of source to tax the benefits accruing up to the time when the option has been exercised, sold or otherwise alienated, it will be left to that State to decide how to tax such benefits,e.g.as either employment income or capital gain. If the State of source decides, for example, to impose a capital gains tax on the option when the employee ceases to be a resident of that country, that tax will be allowed under the Article. The same will be true in the State of residence. For example, while that State will have sole taxation right on the increase of value of the share obtained after exercise since this will be considered to fall under Article 13 of the Convention, it may well decide to tax such increase as employment income rather than as a capital gain under its domestic law.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.5 The benefits resulting from a stock-option granted to an employee will not, as a general rule, fall under either Article 21, which does not apply to income covered by other Articles, or Article 18, which only applies to pension and other similar remuneration, even if the option is exercised after termination of the employment or retirement.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.6 Paragraph 1 allows the State of source to tax salaries, wages and other similar remuneration derived from employment exercised in that State. The determination of whether and to what extent an employee stock-option is derived from employment exercised in a particular State must be done in each case on the basis of all the relevant facts and circumstances, including the contractual conditions associated with that option (e.g.the conditions under which the option granted may be exercised or disposed of). The following general principles should be followed for that purpose.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.7 The first principle is that, as a general rule, an employee stock-option should not be considered to relate to any services rendered after the period of employment that is required as a condition for the employee to acquire the right to exercise that option. Thus, where a stock-option is granted to an employee on the condition that he provides employment services to the same employer (or an associated enterprise) for a period of three years, the employment benefit derived from that option should generally not be attributed to services performed after that three year period.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.8 In applying the above principle, however, it is important to distinguish between a period of employment that is required to obtain the right to exercise an employee stock-option and a period of time that is merely a delay before such option may be exercised (a blocking period). Thus, for example, an option that is granted to an employee on the condition that he remains employed by the same employer (or an associated enterprise) during a period of three years can be considered to be derived from the services performed during these three years while an option that is granted, without any condition of subsequent employment, to an employee on a given date but which, under its terms and conditions, can only be exercised after a delay of three years, should not be considered to relate to the employment performed during these years as the benefit of such an option would accrue to its recipient even if he were to leave his employment immediately after receiving it and waited the required three years before exercising it.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.9 It is also important to distinguish between a situation where a period of employment is required as a condition for the acquisition of the right to exercise an option,i.e.the vesting of the option, and a situation where an option that has already vested may be forfeited if it is not exercised before employment is terminated (or within a short period after). In the latter situation, the benefit of the option should not be considered to relate to services rendered after vesting since the employee has already obtained the benefit and could in fact realise it at any time. A condition under which the vested option may be forfeited if employment is terminated is not a condition for the acquisition of the benefit but, rather, one under which the benefit already acquired may subsequently be lost. The following examples illustrate this distinction:

• Example 1: On 1 January of year 1, a stock-option is granted to an employee. The acquisition of the option is conditional on the employee continuing to be employed by the same employer until 1 January of year 3. The option, once this condition is met, will be exercisable from 1 January of year 3 until 1 January of year 10 (a so-called “American” option[^65] ). It is further provided, however, that any option not previously exercised will be lost upon cessation of employment. In that example, the right to exercise that option has been acquired on 1 January of year 3 (i.e.the date of vesting) since no further period of employment is then required for the employee to obtain the right to exercise the option.

• Example 2: On 1 January of year 1, a stock-option is granted to an employee. The option is exercisable on 1 January of year 5 (a so-called “European” option). The option has been granted subject to the condition that it can only be exercised on 1 January of year 5 if employment is not terminated before that date. In that example, the right to exercise that option is not acquired until 1 January of year 5, which is the date of exercise, since employment until that date is required to acquire the right to exercise the option (i.e.for the option to vest).

(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.10 There are cases where that first principle might not apply. One such case could be where the stock-option is granted without any condition to an employee at the time he either takes up an employment, is transferred to a new country or is given significant new responsibilities and, in each case, the option clearly relates to the new functions to be performed by the employee during a specific future period. In that case, it may be appropriate to consider that the option relates to these new functions even if the right to exercise the option is acquired before these are performed. There are also cases where an option vested technically but where that option entitles the employee to acquire shares which will not vest until the end of a period of required employment. In such cases, it may be appropriate to consider that the benefit of the option relates to the services rendered in the whole period between the grant of the option and the vesting of the shares.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.11 The second principle is that an employee stock-option should only be considered to relate to services rendered before the time when it is granted to the extent that such grant is intended to reward the provision of such services by the recipient for a specific period. This would be the case, for example, where the remuneration is demonstrably based on the employee’s past performance during a certain period or is based on the employer’s past financial results and is conditional on the employee having been employed by the employer or an associated enterprise during a certain period to which these financial results relate. Also, in some cases, there may be objective evidence demonstrating that during a period of past employment, there was a well-founded expectation among participants to an employee stock-option plan that part of their remuneration for that period would be provided through the plan by having stock-options granted at a later date. This evidence might include, for example, the consistent practice of an employer that has granted similar levels of stock-options over a number of years, as long as there was no indication that this practice might be discontinued. Depending on other factors, such evidence may be highly relevant for purposes of determining if and to what extent the stock-option relates to such a period of past employment.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.12 Where a period of employment is required to obtain the right to exercise an employee’s stock-option but such requirement is not applied in certain circumstances,e.g.where the employment is terminated by the employer or where the employee reaches retirement age, the stock-option benefit should be considered to relate only to the period of services actually performed when these circumstances have in fact occurred.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.13 Finally, there may be situations in which some factors may suggest that an employee stock-option is rewarding past services but other factors seem to indicate that it relates to future services. In cases of doubt, it should be recognised that employee stock-options are generally provided as an incentive to future performance or as a way to retain valuable employees. Thus, employee stock-options are primarily related to future services. However, all relevant facts and circumstances will need to be taken into account before such a determination can be made and there may be cases where it can be shown that a stock-option is related to combined specific periods of previous and future services (e.g.options are granted on the basis of the employee having achieved specific performance targets for the previous year, but they become exercisable only if the employee remains employed for another three years).(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.14 Where, based on the preceding principles, a stock-option is considered to be derived from employment exercised in more than one State, it will be necessary to determine which part of the stock-option benefit is derived from employment exercised in each State for purposes of the application of the Article and of Articles 23 A and 23 B. In such a case, the employment benefit attributable to the stock-option should be considered to be derived from a particular country in proportion of the number of days during which employment has been exercised in that country to the total number of days during which the employment services from which the stock-option is derived has been exercised. For that purpose, the only days of employment that should be taken into account are those that are relevant for the stock-option plan,e.g.those during which services are rendered to the same employer or to other employers the employment by whom would be taken into account to satisfy a period of employment required to acquire the right to exercise the option.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

12.15 It is possible for member countries to depart from the case-by-case application of the above principles (in paragraphs 12.7 to 12.14) by agreeing to a specific approach in a bilateral context. For example, two countries that tax predominantly at exercise of an option may agree, as a general principle, to attribute the income from an option that relates primarily to future services to the services performed by an employee in the two States between date of grant and date of exercise. Thus, in the case of options that do not become exercisable until the employee has performed services for the employer for a specific period of time, two States could agree to an approach that attributes the income from the option to each State based on the number of days worked in each State by the employee for the employer in the period between date of grant and date of exercise. Another example would be for two countries that have similar rules for the tax treatment of employee stock-options to adopt provisions that would give to one of the Contracting States exclusive taxation rights on the employment benefit even if a minor part of the employment services to which the option relates have been rendered in the other State. Of course, member countries should be careful in adopting such approaches because they may result in double taxation or double non-taxation if part of the employment is exercised in a third State that does not apply a similar approach.(Added on 15 July 2005 see History)

Observations on the Commentary13. Franceconsiders that paragraph 8.13 should not be interpreted as being sufficient in itself to question a formal contractual relationship. If, with respect to paragraph 8.13, the services rendered by an individual constitute an integral part of the business of the enterprise to which these services are provided, the situation should then be analysed in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 8.14.(Replaced on 22 July 2010 see History)

13.1 With respect to paragraph 6.2,Germanyholds the view that a partnership as such should be considered as the employer (as under the national law of most OECD member States even if these States do not tax the partnership as such). The residence of the partnership would then have to be determined hypothetically as if the partnership were liable to tax by reason of one of the criteria mentioned in paragraph 1 of Article 4.(Amended on 15 July 2014 see History)

Reservations on the Article14. Sloveniareserves the right to add an article which addresses the situation of teachers, professors and researchers, subject to various conditions, and to make a corresponding modification to paragraph 1of Article 15.(Added on 22 July 2010 see History)

15. Denmark,NorwayandSwedenreserve the right to insert special provisions regarding remuneration derived in respect of an employment exercised aboard an aircraft operated in international traffic by the air transport consortium Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS).(Added on 23 July 1992 see History)

16. Norwayreserves the right to include an express reference in paragraph 2 to income earned by hired-out personnel of one Contracting State working in the other Contracting State, in order to clarify the understanding that the exception in paragraph 2 does not apply in situations of “international hiring-out of labour” (see paragraph 8above).(Amended on 15 July 2014 see History)

17. Ireland,Norwayand theUnited Kingdomreserve the right to insert in a special article provisions regarding income derived from employment relating to offshore hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation and related activities.(Amended on 29 April 2000 see History)

18. (Deleted on 21 September 1995 see History)

19. Switzerlandreserves its position on subparagraph a) of paragraph 2 and wishes to insert in its conventions the words “in the fiscal year concerned” instead of the words “in any twelve month period commencing or ending in the fiscal year concerned”.(Added on 23 July 1992 see History)

20. In view of its particular situation in relation to shipping,Greecewill retain its freedom of action with regard to the provisions in the Convention relating to remuneration of crews of ships in international traffic.(Added on 31 March 1994 see History)

21. Greecereserves the right to insert special provisions regarding income from employment relating to offshore activities.(Amended on 29 April 2000 see History)

Title: Amended by the report entitled “The 2000 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 29 April 2000 on the basis of the Annex of another report entitled “Issues Related to Article 14 of the OECD Model Tax Convention” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 27 January 2000). In the 1977 Model Convention and until 29 April 2000, the title read as follows:“COMMENTARY ON ARTICLE 15 CONCERNING THE TAXATION OF DEPENDENT PERSONAL SERVICES.”

Paragraph 1Amended on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled “The 2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010. After 23 October 1997 and until 22 July 2010, paragraph 1 read as follows:“1. Paragraph 1 establishes the general rule as to the taxation of income from employment (other than pensions), namely, that such income is taxable in the State where the employment is actually exercised. Employment is exercised in the place where the employee is physically present when performing the activities for which the employment income is paid. One consequence of this would be that a resident of a Contracting State who derived remuneration, in respect of an employment, from sources in the other State could not be taxed in that other State in respect of that remuneration merely because the results of this work were exploited in that other State.”

Paragraph 1 was previously amended on 23 October 1997, by adding the second sentence, by the report entitled “The 1997 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 October 1997. In the 1977 Model Convention and until 23 October 1997, paragraph 1 read as follows:“1. Paragraph 1 establishes the general rule as to the taxation of income from employment (other than pensions), namely, that such income is taxable in the State where the employment is actually exercised. One consequence of this would be that a resident of a Contracting State who derived remuneration, in respect of an employment, from sources in the other State could not be taxed in that other State in respect of that remuneration merely because the results of this work were exploited in that other State.”

Paragraph 1 was previously amended when the 1977 Model Convention was adopted by the OECD Council on 11 April 1977. In the 1963 Draft Convention (adopted by the OECD Council on 30 July 1963) and until the adoption of the 1977 Model Convention, paragraph 1 read as follows:“1. The first paragraph of Article 15 establishes the general rule as to the taxation of income from employment (other than pensions), namely, that such income is taxable in the State where the employment is actually exercised. One consequence of this would be that a resident of a Contracting State who derived remuneration, in respect of an employment, from sources in the other State could not be taxed in that other State in respect of that remuneration merely because the results of his work were exploited in that other State.”

Paragraph 2Amended on 23 October 1997, by adding the word “Non-employment” at the beginning of the second sentence, by the report entitled “The 1997 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 October 1997. In the 1977 Model Convention and until 23 October 1997, paragraph 2 read as follows:“2. The general rule is subject to exception only in the case of pensions (Article 18) and of remuneration and pensions in respect of government service (Article 19). Remuneration of members of boards of directors of companies is the subject of Article 16.”

Paragraph 2 was previously amended when the 1977 Model Convention was adopted by the OECD Council on 11 April 1977. In the 1963 Draft Convention (adopted by the OECD Council on 30 July 1963) and until the adoption of the 1977 Model Convention, paragraph 2 read as follows:“2. The general rule is subject to exception only in the case of pensions (Article 18) and of remuneration and pensions in respect of certain governmental functions (Article 19). Remuneration of members of boards of directors of companies is the object of a special provision (Article 16).”

Paragraph 2.1Amended on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004). After 23 October 1997 and until 15 July 2005, paragraph 2.1 read as follows:“2.1 Member countries have generally understood the term “salaries, wages and other similar remuneration” to include benefits in kind received in respect of an employment (e.g.the use of a residence or automobile, health or life insurance coverage and club memberships).”

Paragraph 2.1 was added on 23 October 1997 by the report entitled “The 1997 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 October 1997.

Paragraph 2.2Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 2.3Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.4Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.5Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.6Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.7Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.8Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.9Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.10Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.11Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.12Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.13Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.14Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.15Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 2.16Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 3Amended on 15 July 2014 by the by the Report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the Council of the OECD on 15 July 2014. At the same time the preceding heading was added. After 29 April 2000 and until 15 July 2014, paragraph 3 read as follows:“3 Paragraph 2 contains, however, a general exception to the rule in paragraph 1. This exception covers all individuals rendering services in the course of an employment (sales representatives, construction workers, engineers, etc.), to the extent that their remuneration does not fall under the provisions of other Articles, such as those applying to government services or artistes and sportsmen.”

Paragraph 3 was previously amended on 29 April 2000 by the report entitled “The 2000 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 29 April 2000 on the basis of the Annex of another report entitled “Issues Related to Article 14 of the OECD Model Tax Convention” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 27 January 2000). After 23 July 1992 and until 29 April 2000, paragraph 3 read as follows:“3. Paragraph 2 contains, however, a general exception to the rule in paragraph 1. This exception covers all individuals rendering dependent personal services (sales representatives, construction workers, engineers, etc.), to the extent that their remuneration does not fall under the provisions of other Articles, such as those applying to government services or artistes and sportsmen.”

Paragraph 3 was previously amended on 23 July 1992 by the report entitled “The Revision of the Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992, on the basis of paragraph 60 of a previous report entitled “Taxation Issues Relating to International Hiring-out of Labour” (adopted by the OECD Council on 24 August 1984) and paragraph 27 of a previous report entitled “The 183 Day Rule: Some Problems of Application and Interpretation” (adopted by the OECD Council on 24 October 1991). In the 1977 Model Convention and until 23 July 1992, paragraph 3 read as follows:“3. Paragraph 2 contains, however, a general exception to the rule in paragraph 1. This exception, which concerns employment of short duration abroad, is mainly intended to facilitate the international movement of qualified personnel, as in the case of firms which sell capital goods and are responsible for installing and assembling them abroad. The three conditions prescribed in this paragraph must be satisfied for the remuneration to qualify for the exemption. The exemption is limited to the 183-day period. It is further stipulated that this time period may not be exceeded “in the fiscal year concerned”. The formulation used may create difficulties in cases where the fiscal years of the Contracting States do not coincide. In order to avoid these difficulties such Contracting States may prefer to use another phrasing, for instance “fiscal year of that other State” or “calendar year”. The employer paying the remuneration must not be a resident of the State in which the employment is exercised. Furthermore, should the employer have in that State a permanent establishment (or a fixed base if he performs professional services or other activities of an independent character), the exemption is given only on condition that the remuneration is not borne by a permanent establishment or a fixed base which the employer has in the other State. It should be noted that, under the provisions of Article 17, the exemption does not apply to remuneration of artistes and athletes.”

Paragraph 3 was previously amended when the 1977 Model Convention was adopted by the OECD Council on 11 April 1977. In the 1963 Draft Convention (adopted by the OECD Council on 30 July 1963) and until the adoption of the 1977 Model Convention, paragraph 3 read as follows:“3. The second paragraph of Article 15 contains, however, a general exception to the rule in paragraph 1. This exception, which concerns employment of short duration abroad, is mainly intended to facilitate the international movement of qualified personnel, as in the case of firms which sell capital goods and are responsible for installing and assembling them abroad. The three conditions prescribed in this paragraph must be satisfied concurrently for the remuneration to qualify for the exemption. The exemption is limited to the 183-day period which is stipulated in the Mexico and London Model Conventions of the League of Nations. The employer paying the remuneration must not be a resident of the State in which the employment is exercised. Furthermore, should the employer have in that State a permanent establishment (or a fixed base if he performs professional services or independent activities of a similar character), the exemption is given only on condition that the remuneration is not borne by a permanent establishment or a fixed base which the employer has in the other State. It should be noted that, under the provisions of Article 17 the exemption does not apply to remuneration of public entertainers and athletes.”

Paragraph 4Amended on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005. After 23 July 1992 and until 15 July 2005, paragraph 4 read as follows:“4. The three conditions prescribed in this paragraph must be satisfied for the remuneration to qualify for the exemption. The first condition is that the exemption is limited to the 183 day period. It is further stipulated that this time period may not be exceeded “in any twelve month period commencing or ending in the fiscal year concerned”. This contrasts with the 1963 Draft Convention and the 1977 Model Convention which provided that the 183 day period should not be exceeded “in the fiscal year concerned”, a formulation that created difficulties where the fiscal years of the Contracting States did not coincide and which opened up opportunities in the sense that operations were sometimes organised in such a way that, for example, workers stayed in the State concerned for the last 5 ½ months of one year and the first 5 ½ months of the following year. The present wording of subparagraph 2 a)does away with such opportunities for tax avoidance.”

Paragraph 4 of the 1977 Model Convention was replaced on 23 July 1992 when it was renumbered as paragraph 9 (see history of paragraph 9) and a new paragraph 4 was added by the report entitled “The Revision of the Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992, on the basis of paragraph 27 of a previous report entitled “The 183 Day Rule: Some Problems of Application and Interpretation” (adopted by the OECD Council on 24 October 1991).

Paragraph 4 was amended when the 1977 Model Convention was adopted by the OECD Council on 11 April 1977. In the 1963 Draft Convention (adopted by the OECD Council on 30 July 1963) and until the adoption of the 1977 Model Convention, paragraph 4 read as follows:“4. The object of the third paragraph of Article 15 is to apply to the remuneration of crews of ships or aircraft in international traffic, or of boats engaged in inland waterways transport, a rule which follows up to a certain extent the rule applied to the income from shipping, inland waterways transport and air transport -- that is, to tax them in the Contracting State in which the place of effective management of the enterprise concerned is situated. This provision assumes that the internal law of that State allows it to tax the remuneration of a person in the service of the enterprise concerned, irrespective of his fiscal domicile. It is understood that paragraph 3 of Article 8 concerning shipping, inland waterways transport and air transport, is applicable if the place of effective management of a shipping enterprise or of an inland waterways transport enterprise is aboard a ship or boat.”

Paragraph 4.1Added on 15 July 2014 by the report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the Council on 15 July 2014.

Paragraph 5Amended on 21 September 1995 by the report entitled “The 1995 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 21 September 1995. After 23 July 1992 and until 21 September 1995, paragraph 5 read as follows:“5. Although various formulas have been used by member countries to calculate the 183 day period, there is only one way which is consistent with the wording of this paragraph: the “days of physical presence” method. The application of this method is straightforward as the individual is either present in a country or he is not. The presence could also relatively easily be documented by the taxpayer when evidence is required by the tax authorities. Under this method the following days are included in the calculation: part of a day, day of arrival, day of departure and all other days spent inside the State of activity such as Saturdays and Sundays, national holidays, holidays (see paragraph 6 below) before, during and after the activity, short breaks (training, strikes, lock-out, delays in supplies), days of sickness (unless they prevent the individual from leaving and he would have otherwise qualified for the exemption) and death or sickness in the family. The following days are not taken into account: transit between two different points outside the State of activity, holidays spent outside the State of activity and short breaks (for whatever reason) spent outside the State of activity.”

Paragraph 5 of the 1977 Model Convention was replaced on 23 July 1992 when it was renumbered as paragraph 10 (see history of paragraph 10) and a new paragraph 5 was added by the report entitled “The Revision of the Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992, on the basis of paragraph 27 of a previous report entitled “The 183 Day Rule: Some Problems of Application and Interpretation” (adopted by the OECD Council on 24 October 1991).

Paragraph 5 was amended when the 1977 Model Convention was adopted by the OECD Council on 11 April 1977. In the 1963 Draft Convention (adopted by the OECD Council on 30 July 1963) and until the adoption of the 1977 Model Convention, paragraph 5 read as follows:“5. It should be noted that no special rule regarding the taxation of income of frontier workers is included as it would be more suitable for the problems created by local conditions to be solved directly between the countries concerned.”

Paragraph 5.1Added on 17 July 2008 by the report entitled “The 2008 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 17 July 2008.

Paragraph 6Corresponds to paragraph 7 as it read on 29 April 2000 when paragraph 7 was renumbered as paragraph 6 by the report entitled “The 2000 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 29 April 2000 on the basis of Annex I of another report entitled “The Application of the OECD Model Tax Convention to Partnerships” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 20 January 1999).

Paragraph 7 was amended on 21 September 1995 by the report entitled “The 1995 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 21 September 1995. After 23 July 1992 and until 21 September 1995, paragraph 7 read as follows:“7. The second condition is that the employer paying the remuneration must not be a resident of the State in which the employment is exercised. Thirdly, should the employer have in the State in which the employment is exercised a permanent establishment (or a fixed base if he performs professional services or other activities of an independent character), the exemption is given only on condition that the remuneration is not borne by a permanent establishment or a fixed base which he has in that State. It should be noted that, where remuneration is dealt with under a different Article of the Convention, such as Article 17, the provisions of that Article, and not of this Article, apply.”

Paragraph 7 of the 1977 Model Convention was replaced on 23 July 1992 when it was renumbered as paragraph 12 (see history of paragraph 20), the preceding heading was moved with it and a new paragraph 7 was added by the report entitled “The Revision of the Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992, on the basis of paragraph 27 of a previous report entitled “The 183 Day Rule: Some Problems of Application and Interpretation” (adopted by the OECD Council on 24 October 1991).

Paragraph 6 was deleted on 21 September 1995 by the report entitled “The 1995 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 21 September 1995. After 23 July 1992 and until 21 September 1995, paragraph 6 read as follows:“6. While holidays spent inside the State of activity are normally included in the calculation, some flexibility is acceptable if the taxpayer can demonstrate to the satisfaction of the tax authorities of both Contracting States that the holidays are clearly related or not related to the activity.”

Paragraph 6 of the 1977 Model Convention was replaced on 23 July 1992 when it was renumbered as paragraph 11 (see history of paragraph 11) and a new paragraph 6 was added by the report entitled “The Revision of the Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992, on the basis of paragraph 27 of a previous report entitled “The 183 Day Rule: Some Problems of Application and Interpretation” (adopted by the OECD Council on 24 October 1991).

Paragraph 6.1Added on 29 April 2000 by the report entitled “The 2000 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 29 April 2000 on the basis of Annex I of another report entitled “The Application of the OECD Model Tax Convention to Partnerships” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 20 January 1999).

Paragraph 6.2Added on 29 April 2000 by the report entitled “The 2000 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 29 April 2000 on the basis of Annex I of another report entitled “The Application of the OECD Model Tax Convention to Partnerships” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 20 January 1999).

Paragraph 7Amended on 22 July 2010, by incorporating the third and subsequent sentences in a new paragraph 7.1, by the report entitled “The 2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010. After 15 July 2005 and until 22 July 2010, paragraph 7 read as follows:“7. Under the third condition, if the employer has a permanent establishment in the State in which the employment is exercised, the exemption is given on condition that the remuneration is not borne by that permanent establishment. The phrase “borne by” must be interpreted in the light of the underlying purpose of subparagraph c)of the Article, which is to ensure that the exception provided for in paragraph 2 does not apply to remuneration that could give rise to a deduction, having regard to the principles of Article 7 and the nature of the remuneration, in computing the profits of a permanent establishment situated in the State in which the employment is exercised. In this regard, it must be noted that the fact that the employer has, or has not, actually claimed a deduction for the remuneration in computing the profits attributable to the permanent establishment is not necessarily conclusive since the proper test is whether any deduction otherwise available for that remuneration would be allocated to the permanent establishment. That test would be met, for instance, even if no amount were actually deducted as a result of the permanent establishment being exempt from tax in the source country or of the employer simply deciding not to claim a deduction to which he was entitled. The test would also be met where the remuneration is not deductible merely because of its nature (e.g.where the State takes the view that the issuing of shares pursuant to an employee stock-option does not give rise to a deduction) rather than because it should not be allocated to the permanent establishment.”

Paragraph 7 was previously amended on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004). After 29 April 2000 and until 15 July 2005, paragraph 7 read as follows:“7. Under the third condition, if the employer has in the State in which the employment is exercised a permanent establishment, the exemption is given only on condition that the remuneration is not borne by a permanent establishment which he has in that State. The phrase “borne by” must be interpreted in the light of the underlying purpose of subparagraph c) of the Article, which is to ensure that the exception provided for in paragraph 2 does not apply to remuneration that is deductible, having regard to the principles of Article 7, in computing the profits of a permanent establishment situated in the State in which the employment is exercised. In this regard, it must be noted that the fact that the employer has, or has not, actually deducted the remuneration in computing the profits attributable to the permanent establishment is not necessarily conclusive since the proper test is whether the remuneration would be allowed as a deduction for tax purposes; that test would be met, for instance, even if no amount were actually deducted as a result of the permanent establishment being exempt from tax in the source country or of the employer simply deciding not to claim a deduction to which he was entitled.”

Paragraph 7 as it read after 29 April 2000 corresponded to paragraph 7.1. On 29 April 2000 paragraph 7 was renumbered as paragraph 6 (see history of paragraph 6) and paragraph 7.1 was amended and renumbered as paragraph 7 by the report entitled “The 2000 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 29 April 2000 on the basis of the Annex of another report entitled “Issues Related to Article 14 of the OECD Model Tax Convention” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 27 January 2000). After 21 September 1995 and until 29 April 2000, paragraph 7.1 read as follows:“7.1 Under the third condition, if the employer has in the State in which the employment is exercised a permanent establishment (or a fixed base if he performs professional services or other activities of an independent character), the exemption is given only on condition that the remuneration is not borne by a permanent establishment or a fixed base which he has in that State.”

Paragraph 7.1 was added on 21 September 1995 by the report entitled “The 1995 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 21 September 1995.

Paragraph 7.1Corresponds to the third and subsequent sentences of paragraph 7 as they read before 22 July 2010. The third and subsequent sentences of paragraph 7 were amended and incorporated into paragraph 7.1 (see history of paragraph 7) by the report entitled “The 2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 7.1 was amended and renumbered as paragraph 7 (see history of paragraph 7) on 29 April 2000 by the report entitled “The 2000 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 29 April 2000 on the basis of the Annex of another report entitled “Issues Related to Article 14 of the OECD Model Tax Convention” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 27 January 2000).

Paragraph 7.2Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8Amended on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled “The 2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010. After 23 July 1992 and until 22 July 2010, paragraph 8 read as follows:“8. Paragraph 2 has given rise to numerous cases of abuse through adoption of the practice known as “international hiring-out of labour”. In this system, a local employer wishing to employ foreign labour for one or more periods of less than 183 days recruits through an intermediary established abroad who purports to be the employer and hires the labour out to the employer. The worker thus fulfils prima facie the three conditions laid down by paragraph 2 and may claim exemption from taxation in the country where he is temporarily working. To prevent such abuse, in situations of this type, the term “employer” should be interpreted in the context of paragraph 2. In this respect, it should be noted that the term “employer” is not defined in the Convention but it is understood that the employer is the person having rights on the work produced and bearing the relative responsibility and risks. In cases of international hiring-out of labour, these functions are to a large extent exercised by the user. In this context, substance should prevail over form,i.e.each case should be examined to see whether the functions of employer were exercised mainly by the intermediary or by the user. It is therefore up to the Contracting States to agree on the situations in which the intermediary does not fulfil the conditions required for him to be considered as the employer within the meaning of paragraph 2. In settling this question, the competent authorities may refer not only to the above-mentioned indications but to a number of circumstances enabling them to establish that the real employer is the user of the labour (and not the foreign intermediary):

• the hirer does not bear the responsibility or risk for the results produced by the employee’s work;

• the authority to instruct the worker lies with the user;

• the work is performed at a place which is under the control and responsibility of the user;

• the remuneration to the hirer is calculated on the basis of the time utilised, or there is in other ways a connection between this remuneration and wages received by the employee;

• tools and materials are essentially put at the employee’s disposal by the user;

• the number and qualifications of the employees are not solely determined by the hirer.”

Paragraph 8 was added on 23 July 1992 by the report entitled “The Revision of the Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992, on the basis of paragraphs 73 to 79 of a previous report entitled “Taxation Issues Relating to International Hiring-out of Labour” (adopted by the OECD Council on 24 August 1984).

Paragraph 8.1Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.2Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.3Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.4Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.5Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.6Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.7Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.8Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.9Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.10Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.11Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.12Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.13Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.14Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.15Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.16Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.17Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.18Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.19Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.20Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.21Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.22Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.23Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.24Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.25Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.26Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.27Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 8.28Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled the “2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention” adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 9Corresponds to paragraph 4 of the 1977 Model Convention as it read before 23 July 1992. On that date paragraph 4 was renumbered as paragraph 9 by the report entitled “The Revision of the 1977 Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992.

Paragraph 10Amended on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005. After 23 July 1992 and until 15 July 2005, paragraph 10 read as follows:“10. It should be noted that no special rule regarding the taxation of income of frontier workers is included as it would be more suitable for the problems created by local conditions to be solved directly between the States concerned.”

Paragraph 10 corresponded to paragraph 5 as it read on 23 July 1992 when paragraph 5 of the 1977 Model Convention was renumbered as paragraph 10 on 23 July 1992 by the report entitled “The Revision of the 1977 Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992.

Paragraph 11Corresponds to paragraph 6 of the 1977 Model Convention as it read before 23 July 1992. On that date paragraph 6 was renumbered as paragraph 11 by the report entitled “The Revision of the 1977 Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992.

Paragraph 6 was amended when the 1977 Model Convention was adopted by the OECD Council on 11 April 1977. In the 1963 Draft Convention (adopted by the OECD Council on 30 July 1963) and until the adoption of the 1977 Model Convention, paragraph 6 read as follows:“6. No special provision has been made regarding remuneration derived by visiting professors or students employed with a view to their acquiring practical experience. Most current Conventions contain rules of some kind or other concerning such cases, the main purpose of which is to facilitate cultural relations by providing for a limited tax exemption. Sometimes, tax exemption is already provided under national taxation laws. The absence of specific rules should not be interpreted as constituting an obstacle to the inclusion of such rules in bilateral Conventions whenever this is felt desirable.”

Paragraph 12Added together with the heading preceding it, on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12 as it read before 31 March 1994 was amended and renumbered as paragraph 20 (see history of paragraph 20) by the report entitled “1994 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 31 March 1994.

Paragraph 12.1Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.2Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.3Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.4Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.5Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.6Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.7Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.8Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.9Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.10Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.11Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.12Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.13Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.14Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 12.15Added on 15 July 2005 by the report entitled “The 2005 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 15 July 2005, on the basis of another report entitled “Cross-Border Income Tax Issues Arising From Employee Stock Option Plans” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 16 June 2004).

Paragraph 13Replaced on 22 July 2010 when paragraph 13 was deleted and a new paragraph 13 was added by the report entitled “The 2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010. After 23 July 1992 and until 22 July 2010, paragraph 13 read as follows:“13. Switzerlandis of the opinion that the comments in paragraph 8 above should only apply to situations of international hiring-out of labour in case of abusive arrangements.”

Paragraph 13 was added together with the heading preceding it on 23 July 1992 by the report entitled “The Revision of the 1977 Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992.

Paragraph 13.1Amended on 15 July 2014 by the Report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the Council of the OECD on 15 July 2014. After 29 April 2000 and until 15 July 2014, paragraph 13.1 read as follows:“13.1 With respect to paragraph 6.2,Germanyholds the view that a partnership as such should be considered as the employer (as under the national law of most OECD member States even if these States do not tax the partnership as such). The residence of the partnership would then have to be determined hypothetically as if the partnership were liable to tax by reason of one of the criteria mentioned in paragraph 1.”

Paragraph 13.1 was added on 29 April 2000 by the report entitled “The 2000 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 29 April 2000.

Paragraph 14Added on 22 July 2010 by the report entitled “The 2010 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 22 July 2010.

Paragraph 14 as it read before 21 September 1995 was deleted by the report entitled “The 1995 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 21 September 1995. After 23 July 1992 and until 21 September 1995, paragraph 14 read as follows:“14. DenmarkandNorwayreserve the right, with reference to subparagraph 2 b) of the Article, to require that the remuneration be paid by, or on behalf of, an employer who is a resident of the State of which the recipient is a resident.”

Paragraph 14 and the heading preceding it were added on 23 July 1992 by the report entitled “The Revision of the 1977 Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992.

Paragraph 15Added on 23 July 1992 by the report entitled “The Revision of the 1977 Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992.

Paragraph 16Amended on 15 July 2014, by deleting Germany from the list of countries making the reservation, by the Report entitled “The 2014 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the Council of the OECD on 15 July 2014. After 23 July 1992 and until 15 July 2014, paragraph 16 read as follows:“16. GermanyandNorwayreserve the right to include an express reference in paragraph 2 to income earned by hired-out personnel of one Contracting State working in the other Contracting State, in order to clarify the understanding that the exception in paragraph 2 does not apply in situations of “international hiring-out of labour” (see paragraph 8 above).”

Paragraph 16 was added on 23 July 1992 by the report entitled “The Revision of the 1977 Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992.

Paragraph 17Amended on 29 April 2000, by replacing the words “dependent personal services” with the word “employment”, by the report entitled “The 2000 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 29 April 2000 on the basis of the Annex of another report entitled “Issues Related to Article 14 of the OECD Model Tax Convention” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 27 January 2000). After 21 September 1995 and until 29 April 2000, paragraph 17 read as follows:“17. Ireland,Norwayand theUnited Kingdomreserve the right to insert in a special article provisions regarding income derived from dependent personal services relating to offshore hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation and related activities.”

Paragraph 17 was previously amended on 21 September 1995, by adding Ireland to the list of countries making the reservation, by the report entitled “The 1995 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 21 September 1995. After 31 March 1994 and until 21 September 1995, paragraph 17 read as follows:“17. Norwayand theUnited Kingdomreserve the right to insert in a special article provisions regarding income derived from dependent personal services relating to offshore hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation and related activities.”

Paragraph 17 was previously amended on 31 March 1994, by adding United Kingdom as a country making the reservation, by the report entitled “1994 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 31 March 1994. After 23 July 1992 and until 31 March 1994, paragraph 17 read as follows:“17. Norwayreserves the right to insert in a special article provisions regarding income derived from dependent personal services relating to offshore hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation and related activities.”

Paragraph 17 was added on 23 July 1992 by the report entitled “The Revision of the Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992.

Paragraph 18Deleted on 21 September 1995, by the report entitled “The 1995 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 21 September 1995. After 23 July 1992 and until 21 September 1995, paragraph 18 read as follows:“18. Portugalreserves the right, with reference to subparagraph 2 b) of the Article, to require that the remuneration be paid by, or on behalf of, an employer who is a resident of the State of which the recipient is a resident.”

Paragraph 18 was added on 23 July 1992 by the report entitled “The Revision of the 1977 Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992.

Paragraph 19Added on 23 July 1992 by the report entitled “The Revision of the 1977 Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992.

Paragraph 20Corresponds to paragraph 12 as it read before 31 March 1994. On that date paragraph 12 was amended and renumbered as paragraph 20 by the report entitled “1994 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 31 March 1994. After 23 July 1992 and until 31 March 1994, paragraph 12 read as follows:“12. In view of its particular situation in relation to shipping,Greecewill retain its freedom of action with regard to the provisions in the Convention relating to profits from the operation of ships in international traffic, to remuneration of crews of such ships, to capital represented by ships in international traffic and by movable property pertaining to the operation of such ships, and to capital gains from the alienation of such ships and assets.”

Paragraph 12 as it read after 23 July 1992 corresponded to paragraph 7 of the 1977 Model Convention. On 23 July 1992 paragraph 7 was renumbered as paragraph 12 and the heading preceding paragraph 7 was deleted by the report entitled “The Revision of the 1977 Model Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 23 July 1992. In the 1977 Model Convention and until 23 July 1992, the heading preceding paragraph 7 read as follows:“Special Derogation”

Paragraph 7 and the preceding heading were added when the 1977 Model Convention was adopted by the OECD Council on 11 April 1977.

Paragraph 21Amended on 29 April 2000, by replacing the words “dependent personal services” with the word “employment”, by the report entitled “The 2000 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 29 April 2000 on the basis of the Annex of another report entitled “Issues Related to Article 14 of the OECD Model Tax Convention” (adopted by the OECD Committee on Fiscal Affairs on 27 January 2000). After 21 September 1995 and until 29 April 2000, paragraph 21 read as follows:“21. Greecereserves the right to insert special provisions regarding income from dependent personal services relating to offshore activities.”

Paragraph 21 was added on 21 September 1995 by the report entitled “The 1995 Update to the Model Tax Convention”, adopted by the OECD Council on 21 September 1995.